Common Gateway Interface

This interface, most commonly referred to as “CGI”, is the oldest, and is supported by nearly every web server out of the box. Programs using CGI to communicate with their web server need to be started by the server for every request. So, every request starts a new Python interpreter – which takes some time to start up – thus making the whole interface only usable for low load situations.

The upside of CGI is that it is simple – writing a Python program which uses CGI is a matter of about three lines of code. This simplicity comes at a price: it does very few things to help the developer.

Writing CGI programs, while still possible, is no longer recommended. With WSGI, a topic covered later in this document, it is possible to write programs that emulate CGI, so they can be run as CGI if no better option is available.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

# enable debugging
import cgitb
cgitb.enable()

print("Content-Type: text/plain;charset=utf-8")
print()

print("Hello World!")

mod_python

People coming from PHP often find it hard to grasp how to use Python in the web. Their first thought is mostly mod_python, because they think that this is the equivalent to mod_php. Actually, there are many differences. What mod_python does is embed the interpreter into the Apache process, thus speeding up requests by not having to start a Python interpreter for each request. On the other hand, it is not “Python intermixed with HTML” in the way that PHP is often intermixed with HTML. The Python equivalent of that is a template engine. mod_python itself is much more powerful and provides more access to Apache internals. It can emulate CGI, work in a “Python Server Pages” mode (similar to JSP) which is “HTML intermingled with Python”, and it has a “Publisher” which designates one file to accept all requests and decide what to do with them.

mod_python does have some problems. Unlike the PHP interpreter, the Python interpreter uses caching when executing files, so changes to a file will require the web server to be restarted. Another problem is the basic concept – Apache starts child processes to handle the requests, and unfortunately every child process needs to load the whole Python interpreter even if it does not use it. This makes the whole web server slower. Another problem is that, because mod_python is linked against a specific version of libpython, it is not possible to switch from an older version to a newer (e.g. 2.4 to 2.5) without recompiling mod_python. mod_python is also bound to the Apache web server, so programs written for mod_python cannot easily run on other web servers.

These are the reasons why mod_python should be avoided when writing new programs. In some circumstances it still might be a good idea to use mod_python for deployment, but WSGI makes it possible to run WSGI programs under mod_python as well.

FastCGI and SCGI

FastCGI and SCGI try to solve the performance problem of CGI in another way. Instead of embedding the interpreter into the web server, they create long-running background processes. There is still a module in the web server which makes it possible for the web server to “speak” with the background process. As the background process is independent of the server, it can be written in any language, including Python. The language just needs to have a library which handles the communication with the webserver.

The difference between FastCGI and SCGI is very small, as SCGI is essentially just a “simpler FastCGI”. As the web server support for SCGI is limited, most people use FastCGI instead, which works the same way. Almost everything that applies to SCGI also applies to FastCGI as well, so we’ll only cover the latter.

These days, FastCGI is never used directly. Just like mod_python, it is only used for the deployment of WSGI applications.

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

import sys, os
from html import escape
from flup.server.fcgi import WSGIServer

def app(environ, start_response):
    start_response('200 OK', [('Content-Type', 'text/html')])

    yield '<h1>FastCGI Environment</h1>'
    yield '<table>'
    for k, v in sorted(environ.items()):
         yield '<tr><th>{0}</th><td>{1}</td></tr>'.format(
             escape(k), escape(v))
    yield '</table>'

WSGIServer(app).run()

mod_wsgi

mod_wsgi is an attempt to get rid of the low level gateways. Given that FastCGI, SCGI, and mod_python are mostly used to deploy WSGI applications, mod_wsgi was started to directly embed WSGI applications into the Apache web server. mod_wsgi is specifically designed to host WSGI applications. It makes the deployment of WSGI applications much easier than deployment using other low level methods, which need glue code. The downside is that mod_wsgi is limited to the Apache web server; other servers would need their own implementations of mod_wsgi.

mod_wsgi supports two modes: embedded mode, in which it integrates with the Apache process, and daemon mode, which is more FastCGI-like. Unlike FastCGI, mod_wsgi handles the worker-processes by itself, which makes administration easier.

WSGI Servers

The code that is used to connect to various low level gateways like CGI or mod_python is called a WSGI server. One of these servers is flup, which supports FastCGI and SCGI, as well as AJP. Some of these servers are written in Python, as flup is, but there also exist others which are written in C and can be used as drop-in replacements.

There are many servers already available, so a Python web application can be deployed nearly anywhere. This is one big advantage that Python has compared with other web technologies.

Case study: MoinMoin

What does WSGI give the web application developer? Let’s take a look at an application that’s been around for a while, which was written in Python without using WSGI.

One of the most widely used wiki software packages is MoinMoin. It was created in 2000, so it predates WSGI by about three years. Older versions needed separate code to run on CGI, mod_python, FastCGI and standalone.

It now includes support for WSGI. Using WSGI, it is possible to deploy MoinMoin on any WSGI compliant server, with no additional glue code. Unlike the pre-WSGI versions, this could include WSGI servers that the authors of MoinMoin know nothing about.

Templates

Mixing of HTML and Python code is made possible by a few libraries. While convenient at first, it leads to horribly unmaintainable code. That’s why templates exist. Templates are, in the simplest case, just HTML files with placeholders. The HTML is sent to the user’s browser after filling in the placeholders.

Python already includes a way to build simple templates:

# a simple template
template = "<html><body><h1>Hello {who}!</h1></body></html>"
print(template.format(who="Reader"))

To generate complex HTML based on non-trivial model data, conditional and looping constructs like Python’s for and if are generally needed. Template engines support templates of this complexity.

There are a lot of template engines available for Python which can be used with or without a framework. Some of these define a plain-text programming language which is easy to learn, partly because it is limited in scope. Others use XML, and the template output is guaranteed to be always be valid XML. There are many other variations.

Some frameworks ship their own template engine or recommend one in particular. In the absence of a reason to use a different template engine, using the one provided by or recommended by the framework is a good idea.

Popular template engines include:

• Mako
• Genshi
• Jinja

Data persistence

Data persistence, while sounding very complicated, is just about storing data. This data might be the text of blog entries, the postings on a bulletin board or the text of a wiki page. There are, of course, a number of different ways to store information on a web server.

Often, relational database engines like MySQL or PostgreSQL are used because of their good performance when handling very large databases consisting of millions of entries. There is also a small database engine called SQLite, which is bundled with Python in the sqlite3 module, and which uses only one file. It has no other dependencies. For smaller sites SQLite is just enough.

Relational databases are queried using a language called SQL. Python programmers in general do not like SQL too much, as they prefer to work with objects. It is possible to save Python objects into a database using a technology called ORM (Object Relational Mapping). ORM translates all object-oriented access into SQL code under the hood, so the developer does not need to think about it. Most frameworks use ORMs, and it works quite well.

A second possibility is storing data in normal, plain text files (some times called “flat files”). This is very easy for simple sites, but can be difficult to get right if the web site is performing many updates to the stored data.

A third possibility are object oriented databases (also called “object databases”). These databases store the object data in a form that closely parallels the way the objects are structured in memory during program execution. (By contrast, ORMs store the object data as rows of data in tables and relations between those rows.) Storing the objects directly has the advantage that nearly all objects can be saved in a straightforward way, unlike in relational databases where some objects are very hard to represent.

Frameworks often give hints on which data storage method to choose. It is usually a good idea to stick to the data store recommended by the framework unless the application has special requirements better satisfied by an alternate storage mechanism.

Some notable frameworks

There are an incredible number of frameworks, so they cannot all be covered here. Instead we will briefly touch on some of the most popular.