Python 2.7.13 documentation
Table of contents
- Python 2.7.13 documentation
- Python Module Index
-
What's New in Python
-
What's New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.6
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory
- PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package
- PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105: print As a Function
- PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The 'with' statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The '__index__' method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.2
- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.1
- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.0
- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
-
What's New in Python 2.7
-
The Python Tutorial
- Whetting Your Appetite
- Using the Python Interpreter
- An Informal Introduction to Python
- More Control Flow Tools
- Data Structures
- Modules
- Input and Output
- Errors and Exceptions
- Classes
- Brief Tour of the Standard Library
- Brief Tour of the Standard Library -- Part II
- What Now?
- Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- Appendix
- Python Setup and Usage
-
The Python Language Reference
- Introduction
- Lexical analysis
-
Data model
- Objects, values and types
- The standard type hierarchy
- New-style and classic classes
-
Special method names
- Basic customization
- Customizing attribute access
- Customizing class creation
- Customizing instance and subclass checks
- Emulating callable objects
- Emulating container types
- Additional methods for emulation of sequence types
- Emulating numeric types
- Coercion rules
- With Statement Context Managers
- Special method lookup for old-style classes
- Special method lookup for new-style classes
- Execution model
- Expressions
- Simple statements
- Compound statements
- Top-level components
- Full Grammar specification
-
The Python Standard Library
- Introduction
- Built-in Functions
- Non-essential Built-in Functions
- Built-in Constants
-
Built-in Types
- Truth Value Testing
- Boolean Operations --- and, or, not
- Comparisons
- Numeric Types --- int, float, long, complex
- Iterator Types
- Sequence Types --- str, unicode, list, tuple, bytearray, buffer, xrange
- Set Types --- set, frozenset
- Mapping Types --- dict
- File Objects
- memoryview type
- Context Manager Types
- Other Built-in Types
- Special Attributes
- Built-in Exceptions
-
String Services
- string --- Common string operations
- re --- Regular expression operations
- struct --- Interpret strings as packed binary data
- difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas
- StringIO --- Read and write strings as files
- cStringIO --- Faster version of StringIO
- textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling
- codecs --- Codec registry and base classes
- unicodedata --- Unicode Database
- stringprep --- Internet String Preparation
- fpformat --- Floating point conversions
-
Data Types
- datetime --- Basic date and time types
- calendar --- General calendar-related functions
- collections --- High-performance container datatypes
- heapq --- Heap queue algorithm
- bisect --- Array bisection algorithm
- array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values
- sets --- Unordered collections of unique elements
- sched --- Event scheduler
- mutex --- Mutual exclusion support
- Queue --- A synchronized queue class
- weakref --- Weak references
- UserDict --- Class wrapper for dictionary objects
- UserList --- Class wrapper for list objects
- UserString --- Class wrapper for string objects
- types --- Names for built-in types
- new --- Creation of runtime internal objects
- copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations
- pprint --- Data pretty printer
- repr --- Alternate repr() implementation
-
Numeric and Mathematical Modules
- numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes
- math --- Mathematical functions
- cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- decimal --- Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
- fractions --- Rational numbers
- random --- Generate pseudo-random numbers
- itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
- functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
- operator --- Standard operators as functions
-
File and Directory Access
- os.path --- Common pathname manipulations
- fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- stat --- Interpreting stat() results
- statvfs --- Constants used with os.statvfs()
- filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons
- tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories
- glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching
- linecache --- Random access to text lines
- shutil --- High-level file operations
- dircache --- Cached directory listings
- macpath --- Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
-
Data Persistence
- pickle --- Python object serialization
- cPickle --- A faster pickle
- copy_reg --- Register pickle support functions
- shelve --- Python object persistence
- marshal --- Internal Python object serialization
- anydbm --- Generic access to DBM-style databases
- whichdb --- Guess which DBM module created a database
- dbm --- Simple "database" interface
- gdbm --- GNU's reinterpretation of dbm
- dbhash --- DBM-style interface to the BSD database library
- bsddb --- Interface to Berkeley DB library
- dumbdbm --- Portable DBM implementation
- sqlite3 --- DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
- Data Compression and Archiving
- File Formats
- Cryptographic Services
-
Generic Operating System Services
- os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
- io --- Core tools for working with streams
- time --- Time access and conversions
- argparse --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
-
optparse --- Parser for command line options
- Background
- Tutorial
- Reference Guide
-
Option Callbacks
- Defining a callback option
- How callbacks are called
- Raising errors in a callback
- Callback example 1: trivial callback
- Callback example 2: check option order
- Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- Callback example 6: variable arguments
- Extending optparse
- getopt --- C-style parser for command line options
- logging --- Logging facility for Python
- logging.config --- Logging configuration
- logging.handlers --- Logging handlers
- getpass --- Portable password input
- curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays
- curses.textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs
- curses.ascii --- Utilities for ASCII characters
- curses.panel --- A panel stack extension for curses
- platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data
- errno --- Standard errno system symbols
-
ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python
-
ctypes tutorial
- Loading dynamic link libraries
- Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- Calling functions
- Fundamental data types
- Calling functions, continued
- Calling functions with your own custom data types
- Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- Return types
- Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- Structures and unions
- Structure/union alignment and byte order
- Bit fields in structures and unions
- Arrays
- Pointers
- Type conversions
- Incomplete Types
- Callback functions
- Accessing values exported from dlls
- Surprises
- Variable-sized data types
- ctypes reference
-
ctypes tutorial
-
Optional Operating System Services
- select --- Waiting for I/O completion
- threading --- Higher-level threading interface
- thread --- Multiple threads of control
- dummy_threading --- Drop-in replacement for the threading module
- dummy_thread --- Drop-in replacement for the thread module
- multiprocessing --- Process-based "threading" interface
- mmap --- Memory-mapped file support
- readline --- GNU readline interface
- rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline
-
Interprocess Communication and Networking
- subprocess --- Subprocess management
- socket --- Low-level networking interface
- ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events
- popen2 --- Subprocesses with accessible I/O streams
- asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler
- asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler
-
Internet Data Handling
-
email --- An email and MIME handling package
- email.message: Representing an email message
- email.parser: Parsing email messages
- email.generator: Generating MIME documents
- email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
- email.header: Internationalized headers
- email.charset: Representing character sets
- email.encoders: Encoders
- email.errors: Exception and Defect classes
- email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities
- email.iterators: Iterators
- email: Examples
- Package History
- Differences from mimelib
- json --- JSON encoder and decoder
- mailcap --- Mailcap file handling
- mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- mhlib --- Access to MH mailboxes
- mimetools --- Tools for parsing MIME messages
- mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types
- MimeWriter --- Generic MIME file writer
- mimify --- MIME processing of mail messages
- multifile --- Support for files containing distinct parts
- rfc822 --- Parse RFC 2822 mail headers
- base64 --- RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings
- binhex --- Encode and decode binhex4 files
- binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII
- quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files
-
email --- An email and MIME handling package
-
Structured Markup Processing Tools
- HTMLParser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser
- sgmllib --- Simple SGML parser
- htmllib --- A parser for HTML documents
- htmlentitydefs --- Definitions of HTML general entities
- XML Processing Modules
- XML vulnerabilities
- xml.etree.ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API
- xml.dom --- The Document Object Model API
- xml.dom.minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation
- xml.dom.pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees
- xml.sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers
- xml.sax.handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers
- xml.sax.saxutils --- SAX Utilities
- xml.sax.xmlreader --- Interface for XML parsers
- xml.parsers.expat --- Fast XML parsing using Expat
-
Internet Protocols and Support
- webbrowser --- Convenient Web-browser controller
- cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support
- cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- urllib --- Open arbitrary resources by URL
-
urllib2 --- extensible library for opening URLs
- Request Objects
- OpenerDirector Objects
- BaseHandler Objects
- HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- ProxyHandler Objects
- HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPHandler Objects
- HTTPSHandler Objects
- FileHandler Objects
- FTPHandler Objects
- CacheFTPHandler Objects
- UnknownHandler Objects
- HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- Examples
- httplib --- HTTP protocol client
- ftplib --- FTP protocol client
- poplib --- POP3 protocol client
- imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client
- nntplib --- NNTP protocol client
- smtplib --- SMTP protocol client
- smtpd --- SMTP Server
- telnetlib --- Telnet client
- uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- urlparse --- Parse URLs into components
- SocketServer --- A framework for network servers
- BaseHTTPServer --- Basic HTTP server
- SimpleHTTPServer --- Simple HTTP request handler
- CGIHTTPServer --- CGI-capable HTTP request handler
- cookielib --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- Cookie --- HTTP state management
- xmlrpclib --- XML-RPC client access
- SimpleXMLRPCServer --- Basic XML-RPC server
- DocXMLRPCServer --- Self-documenting XML-RPC server
-
Multimedia Services
- audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data
- imageop --- Manipulate raw image data
- aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files
- wave --- Read and write WAV files
- chunk --- Read IFF chunked data
- colorsys --- Conversions between color systems
- imghdr --- Determine the type of an image
- sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file
- ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- Internationalization
- Program Frameworks
-
Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
- Tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk
- ttk --- Tk themed widgets
- Tix --- Extension widgets for Tk
- ScrolledText --- Scrolled Text Widget
- turtle --- Turtle graphics for Tk
- IDLE
- Other Graphical User Interface Packages
-
Development Tools
- pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system
- doctest --- Test interactive Python examples
- unittest --- Unit testing framework
- 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
- test --- Regression tests package for Python
- test.test_support --- Utility functions for tests
- Debugging and Profiling
- Software Packaging and Distribution
-
Python Runtime Services
- sys --- System-specific parameters and functions
- sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information
- __builtin__ --- Built-in objects
- future_builtins --- Python 3 builtins
- __main__ --- Top-level script environment
- warnings --- Warning control
- contextlib --- Utilities for with-statement contexts
- abc --- Abstract Base Classes
- atexit --- Exit handlers
- traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- __future__ --- Future statement definitions
- gc --- Garbage Collector interface
- inspect --- Inspect live objects
- site --- Site-specific configuration hook
- user --- User-specific configuration hook
- fpectl --- Floating point exception control
- Custom Python Interpreters
- Restricted Execution
- Importing Modules
-
Python Language Services
- parser --- Access Python parse trees
- ast --- Abstract Syntax Trees
- symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables
- symbol --- Constants used with Python parse trees
- token --- Constants used with Python parse trees
- keyword --- Testing for Python keywords
- tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source
- tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation
- pyclbr --- Python class browser support
- py_compile --- Compile Python source files
- compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries
- dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode
- pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers
- Python compiler package
- Miscellaneous Services
- MS Windows Specific Services
-
Unix Specific Services
- posix --- The most common POSIX system calls
- pwd --- The password database
- spwd --- The shadow password database
- grp --- The group database
- crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords
- dl --- Call C functions in shared objects
- termios --- POSIX style tty control
- tty --- Terminal control functions
- pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities
- fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls
- pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines
- posixfile --- File-like objects with locking support
- resource --- Resource usage information
- nis --- Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)
- syslog --- Unix syslog library routines
- commands --- Utilities for running commands
-
Mac OS X specific services
- ic --- Access to the Mac OS X Internet Config
- MacOS --- Access to Mac OS interpreter features
- macostools --- Convenience routines for file manipulation
- findertools --- The finder's Apple Events interface
- EasyDialogs --- Basic Macintosh dialogs
- FrameWork --- Interactive application framework
- autoGIL --- Global Interpreter Lock handling in event loops
-
Mac OS Toolbox Modules
- Carbon.AE --- Apple Events
- Carbon.AH --- Apple Help
- Carbon.App --- Appearance Manager
- Carbon.Appearance --- Appearance Manager constants
- Carbon.CF --- Core Foundation
- Carbon.CG --- Core Graphics
- Carbon.CarbonEvt --- Carbon Event Manager
- Carbon.CarbonEvents --- Carbon Event Manager constants
- Carbon.Cm --- Component Manager
- Carbon.Components --- Component Manager constants
- Carbon.ControlAccessor --- Control Manager accssors
- Carbon.Controls --- Control Manager constants
- Carbon.CoreFounation --- CoreFounation constants
- Carbon.CoreGraphics --- CoreGraphics constants
- Carbon.Ctl --- Control Manager
- Carbon.Dialogs --- Dialog Manager constants
- Carbon.Dlg --- Dialog Manager
- Carbon.Drag --- Drag and Drop Manager
- Carbon.Dragconst --- Drag and Drop Manager constants
- Carbon.Events --- Event Manager constants
- Carbon.Evt --- Event Manager
- Carbon.File --- File Manager
- Carbon.Files --- File Manager constants
- Carbon.Fm --- Font Manager
- Carbon.Folder --- Folder Manager
- Carbon.Folders --- Folder Manager constants
- Carbon.Fonts --- Font Manager constants
- Carbon.Help --- Help Manager
- Carbon.IBCarbon --- Carbon InterfaceBuilder
- Carbon.IBCarbonRuntime --- Carbon InterfaceBuilder constants
- Carbon.Icn --- Carbon Icon Manager
- Carbon.Icons --- Carbon Icon Manager constants
- Carbon.Launch --- Carbon Launch Services
- Carbon.LaunchServices --- Carbon Launch Services constants
- Carbon.List --- List Manager
- Carbon.Lists --- List Manager constants
- Carbon.MacHelp --- Help Manager constants
- Carbon.MediaDescr --- Parsers and generators for Quicktime Media descriptors
- Carbon.Menu --- Menu Manager
- Carbon.Menus --- Menu Manager constants
- Carbon.Mlte --- MultiLingual Text Editor
- Carbon.OSA --- Carbon OSA Interface
- Carbon.OSAconst --- Carbon OSA Interface constants
- Carbon.QDOffscreen --- QuickDraw Offscreen constants
- Carbon.Qd --- QuickDraw
- Carbon.Qdoffs --- QuickDraw Offscreen
- Carbon.Qt --- QuickTime
- Carbon.QuickDraw --- QuickDraw constants
- Carbon.QuickTime --- QuickTime constants
- Carbon.Res --- Resource Manager and Handles
- Carbon.Resources --- Resource Manager and Handles constants
- Carbon.Scrap --- Scrap Manager
- Carbon.Snd --- Sound Manager
- Carbon.Sound --- Sound Manager constants
- Carbon.TE --- TextEdit
- Carbon.TextEdit --- TextEdit constants
- Carbon.Win --- Window Manager
- Carbon.Windows --- Window Manager constants
- ColorPicker --- Color selection dialog
- MacPython OSA Modules
-
SGI IRIX Specific Services
- al --- Audio functions on the SGI
- AL --- Constants used with the al module
- cd --- CD-ROM access on SGI systems
- fl --- FORMS library for graphical user interfaces
- FL --- Constants used with the fl module
- flp --- Functions for loading stored FORMS designs
- fm --- Font Manager interface
- gl --- Graphics Library interface
- DEVICE --- Constants used with the gl module
- GL --- Constants used with the gl module
- imgfile --- Support for SGI imglib files
- jpeg --- Read and write JPEG files
- SunOS Specific Services
-
Undocumented Modules
- Miscellaneous useful utilities
- Platform specific modules
- Multimedia
-
Undocumented Mac OS modules
- applesingle --- AppleSingle decoder
- buildtools --- Helper module for BuildApplet and Friends
- cfmfile --- Code Fragment Resource module
- icopen --- Internet Config replacement for open()
- macerrors --- Mac OS Errors
- macresource --- Locate script resources
- Nav --- NavServices calls
- PixMapWrapper --- Wrapper for PixMap objects
- videoreader --- Read QuickTime movies
- W --- Widgets built on FrameWork
- Obsolete
- SGI-specific Extension modules
-
Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
-
Extending Python with C or C++
- A Simple Example
- Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- Back to the Example
- The Module's Method Table and Initialization Function
- Compilation and Linkage
- Calling Python Functions from C
- Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- Building Arbitrary Values
- Reference Counts
- Writing Extensions in C++
- Providing a C API for an Extension Module
- Defining New Types
- Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
- Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- Embedding Python in Another Application
-
Extending Python with C or C++
-
Python/C API Reference Manual
- Introduction
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
- Distributing Python Modules
- Installing Python Modules
-
Python HOWTOs
-
Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- The Short Explanation
-
Details
- Drop support for Python 2.5 and older (at least)
- Make sure you specify the proper version support in your setup.py file
- Have good test coverage
- Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
- Update your code
- Prevent compatibility regressions
- Check which dependencies block your transition
- Update your setup.py file to denote Python 3 compatibility
- Use continuous integration to stay compatible
- Dropping Python 2 support completely
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
-
Logging Cookbook
- Using logging in multiple modules
- Logging from multiple threads
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using urllib2
- HOWTO Use Python in the web
- Argparse Tutorial
-
Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
-
Python Frequently Asked Questions
- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
-
Design and History FAQ
- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must 'self' be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can't I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn't there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can't you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can't lambda expressions contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why isn't all memory freed when Python exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented?
- How are dictionaries implemented?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn't list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can't raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn't Python have a "with" statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
- Library and Extension FAQ
-
Extending/Embedding FAQ
- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object's method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- What does "SystemError: _PyImport_FixupExtension: module yourmodule not loaded" mean?
- How do I tell "incomplete input" from "invalid input"?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- When importing module X, why do I get "undefined symbol: PyUnicodeUCS2*"?
-
Python on Windows FAQ
- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?
- How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?
- How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- "Why is Python Installed on my Computer?" FAQ
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Reporting Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License