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Python Documentation contents
- What’s New in Python
- What’s New In Python 3.5
- Summary – Release highlights
- New Features
- PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
- PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
- PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
- PEP 461 - % formatting support for bytes and bytearray
- PEP 484 - Type Hints
- PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
- PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
- PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
- PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
- PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
- PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
- PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
- Other Language Changes
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- argparse
- asyncio
- bz2
- cgi
- cmath
- code
- collections
- collections.abc
- compileall
- concurrent.futures
- configparser
- contextlib
- csv
- curses
- dbm
- difflib
- distutils
- doctest
- enum
- faulthandler
- functools
- glob
- gzip
- heapq
- http
- http.client
- idlelib and IDLE
- imaplib
- imghdr
- importlib
- inspect
- io
- ipaddress
- json
- linecache
- locale
- logging
- lzma
- math
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pathlib
- pickle
- poplib
- re
- readline
- selectors
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- sndhdr
- socket
- ssl
- sqlite3
- subprocess
- sys
- sysconfig
- tarfile
- threading
- time
- timeit
- tkinter
- traceback
- types
- unicodedata
- unittest
- unittest.mock
- urllib
- wsgiref
- xmlrpc
- xml.sax
- zipfile
- Other module-level changes
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.5
- What’s New In Python 3.4
- Summary – Release Highlights
- New Features
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- aifc
- argparse
- audioop
- base64
- collections
- colorsys
- contextlib
- dbm
- dis
- doctest
- filecmp
- functools
- gc
- glob
- hashlib
- hmac
- html
- http
- idlelib and IDLE
- importlib
- inspect
- ipaddress
- logging
- marshal
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- plistlib
- poplib
- pprint
- pty
- pydoc
- re
- resource
- select
- shelve
- shutil
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sunau
- sys
- tarfile
- textwrap
- threading
- traceback
- types
- urllib
- unittest
- venv
- wave
- weakref
- xml.etree
- zipfile
- CPython Implementation Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.4
- Changed in 3.4.3
- What’s New In Python 3.3
- Summary – Release highlights
- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
- PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
- PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
- PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
- PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
- PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
- PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
- PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
- PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
- PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
- PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
- PEP 362: Function Signature Object
- PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
- Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
- Other Language Changes
- A Finer-Grained Import Lock
- Builtin functions and types
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- array
- base64
- binascii
- bz2
- codecs
- collections
- contextlib
- crypt
- curses
- datetime
- decimal
- ftplib
- functools
- gc
- hmac
- http
- html
- imaplib
- inspect
- io
- itertools
- logging
- math
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- nntplib
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- pydoc
- re
- sched
- select
- shlex
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- socketserver
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sys
- tarfile
- tempfile
- textwrap
- threading
- time
- types
- unittest
- urllib
- webbrowser
- xml.etree.ElementTree
- zlib
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Porting to Python 3.3
- What’s New In Python 3.2
- PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
- PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
- PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
- PEP 3148: The
concurrent.futuresmodule - PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
- PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
- PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- elementtree
- functools
- itertools
- collections
- threading
- datetime and time
- math
- abc
- io
- reprlib
- logging
- csv
- contextlib
- decimal and fractions
- ftp
- popen
- select
- gzip and zipfile
- tarfile
- hashlib
- ast
- os
- shutil
- sqlite3
- html
- socket
- ssl
- nntp
- certificates
- imaplib
- http.client
- unittest
- random
- poplib
- asyncore
- tempfile
- inspect
- pydoc
- dis
- dbm
- ctypes
- site
- sysconfig
- pdb
- configparser
- urllib.parse
- mailbox
- turtledemo
- Multi-threading
- Optimizations
- Unicode
- Codecs
- Documentation
- IDLE
- Code Repository
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.2
- What’s New In Python 3.1
- What’s New In Python 3.0
- What’s New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.6
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user
site-packagesDirectory - PEP 371: The
multiprocessingPackage - PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105:
printAs a Function - PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.2
- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.1
- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.0
- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- Changelog
- Python 3.5.1 final?
- Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1?
- Python 3.5.0 final?
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4?
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3?
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2?
- Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1?
- Python 3.5.0 beta 4?
- Python 3.5.0 beta 3?
- Python 3.5.0 beta 2?
- Python 3.5.0 beta 1?
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 4?
- Python 3.5.0 alpha 3?
- Python 3.5 alpha 2?
- Python 3.5 alpha 1?
- Python 3.4.0?
- Python 3.4.0 release candidate 3?
- Python 3.4.0 release candidate 2?
- Python 3.4.0 release candidate 1?
- Python 3.4.0 Beta 3?
- Python 3.4.0 Beta 2?
- Python 3.4.0 Beta 1?
- Python 3.4.0 Alpha 4?
- Python 3.4.0 Alpha 3?
- Python 3.4.0 Alpha 2?
- Python 3.4.0 Alpha 1?
- What’s New In Python 3.5
- The Python Tutorial
- 1. Whetting Your Appetite
- 2. Using the Python Interpreter
- 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
- 4. More Control Flow Tools
- 5. Data Structures
- 6. Modules
- 7. Input and Output
- 8. Errors and Exceptions
- 9. Classes
- 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library
- 10.1. Operating System Interface
- 10.2. File Wildcards
- 10.3. Command Line Arguments
- 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
- 10.5. String Pattern Matching
- 10.6. Mathematics
- 10.7. Internet Access
- 10.8. Dates and Times
- 10.9. Data Compression
- 10.10. Performance Measurement
- 10.11. Quality Control
- 10.12. Batteries Included
- 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II
- 12. Virtual Environments and Packages
- 13. What Now?
- 14. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- 15. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- 16. Appendix
- Python Setup and Usage
- 1. Command line and environment
- 2. Using Python on Unix platforms
- 3. Using Python on Windows
- 3.1. Installing Python
- 3.2. Alternative bundles
- 3.3. Configuring Python
- 3.4. Python Launcher for Windows
- 3.5. Finding modules
- 3.6. Additional modules
- 3.7. Compiling Python on Windows
- 3.8. Embedded Distribution
- 3.9. Other resources
- 4. Using Python on a Macintosh
- 5. Additional Tools and Scripts
- The Python Language Reference
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Lexical analysis
- 3. Data model
- 3.1. Objects, values and types
- 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
- 3.3. Special method names
- 3.3.1. Basic customization
- 3.3.2. Customizing attribute access
- 3.3.3. Customizing class creation
- 3.3.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
- 3.3.5. Emulating callable objects
- 3.3.6. Emulating container types
- 3.3.7. Emulating numeric types
- 3.3.8. With Statement Context Managers
- 3.3.9. Special method lookup
- 3.4. Coroutines
- 4. Execution model
- 5. The import system
- 6. Expressions
- 6.1. Arithmetic conversions
- 6.2. Atoms
- 6.3. Primaries
- 6.4. Await expression
- 6.5. The power operator
- 6.6. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
- 6.7. Binary arithmetic operations
- 6.8. Shifting operations
- 6.9. Binary bitwise operations
- 6.10. Comparisons
- 6.11. Boolean operations
- 6.12. Conditional expressions
- 6.13. Lambdas
- 6.14. Expression lists
- 6.15. Evaluation order
- 6.16. Operator precedence
- 7. Simple statements
- 7.1. Expression statements
- 7.2. Assignment statements
- 7.3. The
assertstatement - 7.4. The
passstatement - 7.5. The
delstatement - 7.6. The
returnstatement - 7.7. The
yieldstatement - 7.8. The
raisestatement - 7.9. The
breakstatement - 7.10. The
continuestatement - 7.11. The
importstatement - 7.12. The
globalstatement - 7.13. The
nonlocalstatement
- 8. Compound statements
- 9. Top-level components
- 10. Full Grammar specification
- The Python Standard Library
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Built-in Functions
- 3. Built-in Constants
- 4. Built-in Types
- 4.1. Truth Value Testing
- 4.2. Boolean Operations —
and,or,not - 4.3. Comparisons
- 4.4. Numeric Types —
int,float,complex - 4.5. Iterator Types
- 4.6. Sequence Types —
list,tuple,range - 4.7. Text Sequence Type —
str - 4.8. Binary Sequence Types —
bytes,bytearray,memoryview - 4.9. Set Types —
set,frozenset - 4.10. Mapping Types —
dict - 4.11. Context Manager Types
- 4.12. Other Built-in Types
- 4.13. Special Attributes
- 5. Built-in Exceptions
- 6. Text Processing Services
- 6.1.
string— Common string operations - 6.2.
re— Regular expression operations - 6.3.
difflib— Helpers for computing deltas - 6.4.
textwrap— Text wrapping and filling - 6.5.
unicodedata— Unicode Database - 6.6.
stringprep— Internet String Preparation - 6.7.
readline— GNU readline interface - 6.8.
rlcompleter— Completion function for GNU readline
- 6.1.
- 7. Binary Data Services
- 7.1.
struct— Interpret bytes as packed binary data - 7.2.
codecs— Codec registry and base classes- 7.2.1. Codec Base Classes
- 7.2.2. Encodings and Unicode
- 7.2.3. Standard Encodings
- 7.2.4. Python Specific Encodings
- 7.2.5.
encodings.idna— Internationalized Domain Names in Applications - 7.2.6.
encodings.mbcs— Windows ANSI codepage - 7.2.7.
encodings.utf_8_sig— UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
- 7.1.
- 8. Data Types
- 8.1.
datetime— Basic date and time types - 8.2.
calendar— General calendar-related functions - 8.3.
collections— Container datatypes - 8.4.
collections.abc— Abstract Base Classes for Containers - 8.5.
heapq— Heap queue algorithm - 8.6.
bisect— Array bisection algorithm - 8.7.
array— Efficient arrays of numeric values - 8.8.
weakref— Weak references - 8.9.
types— Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types - 8.10.
copy— Shallow and deep copy operations - 8.11.
pprint— Data pretty printer - 8.12.
reprlib— Alternaterepr()implementation - 8.13.
enum— Support for enumerations- 8.13.1. Module Contents
- 8.13.2. Creating an Enum
- 8.13.3. Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
- 8.13.4. Duplicating enum members and values
- 8.13.5. Ensuring unique enumeration values
- 8.13.6. Iteration
- 8.13.7. Comparisons
- 8.13.8. Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
- 8.13.9. Restricted subclassing of enumerations
- 8.13.10. Pickling
- 8.13.11. Functional API
- 8.13.12. Derived Enumerations
- 8.13.13. Interesting examples
- 8.13.14. How are Enums different?
- 8.1.
- 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules
- 9.1.
numbers— Numeric abstract base classes - 9.2.
math— Mathematical functions - 9.3.
cmath— Mathematical functions for complex numbers - 9.4.
decimal— Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic - 9.5.
fractions— Rational numbers - 9.6.
random— Generate pseudo-random numbers - 9.7.
statistics— Mathematical statistics functions
- 9.1.
- 10. Functional Programming Modules
- 11. File and Directory Access
- 11.1.
pathlib— Object-oriented filesystem paths - 11.2.
os.path— Common pathname manipulations - 11.3.
fileinput— Iterate over lines from multiple input streams - 11.4.
stat— Interpretingstat()results - 11.5.
filecmp— File and Directory Comparisons - 11.6.
tempfile— Generate temporary files and directories - 11.7.
glob— Unix style pathname pattern expansion - 11.8.
fnmatch— Unix filename pattern matching - 11.9.
linecache— Random access to text lines - 11.10.
shutil— High-level file operations - 11.11.
macpath— Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
- 11.1.
- 12. Data Persistence
- 12.1.
pickle— Python object serialization - 12.2.
copyreg— Registerpicklesupport functions - 12.3.
shelve— Python object persistence - 12.4.
marshal— Internal Python object serialization - 12.5.
dbm— Interfaces to Unix “databases” - 12.6.
sqlite3— DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
- 12.1.
- 13. Data Compression and Archiving
- 14. File Formats
- 14.1.
csv— CSV File Reading and Writing - 14.2.
configparser— Configuration file parser- 14.2.1. Quick Start
- 14.2.2. Supported Datatypes
- 14.2.3. Fallback Values
- 14.2.4. Supported INI File Structure
- 14.2.5. Interpolation of values
- 14.2.6. Mapping Protocol Access
- 14.2.7. Customizing Parser Behaviour
- 14.2.8. Legacy API Examples
- 14.2.9. ConfigParser Objects
- 14.2.10. RawConfigParser Objects
- 14.2.11. Exceptions
- 14.3.
netrc— netrc file processing - 14.4.
xdrlib— Encode and decode XDR data - 14.5.
plistlib— Generate and parse Mac OS X.plistfiles
- 14.1.
- 15. Cryptographic Services
- 16. Generic Operating System Services
- 16.1.
os— Miscellaneous operating system interfaces- 16.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
- 16.1.2. Process Parameters
- 16.1.3. File Object Creation
- 16.1.4. File Descriptor Operations
- 16.1.5. Files and Directories
- 16.1.6. Process Management
- 16.1.7. Interface to the scheduler
- 16.1.8. Miscellaneous System Information
- 16.1.9. Miscellaneous Functions
- 16.2.
io— Core tools for working with streams - 16.3.
time— Time access and conversions - 16.4.
argparse— Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands - 16.5.
getopt— C-style parser for command line options - 16.6.
logging— Logging facility for Python- 16.6.1. Logger Objects
- 16.6.2. Logging Levels
- 16.6.3. Handler Objects
- 16.6.4. Formatter Objects
- 16.6.5. Filter Objects
- 16.6.6. LogRecord Objects
- 16.6.7. LogRecord attributes
- 16.6.8. LoggerAdapter Objects
- 16.6.9. Thread Safety
- 16.6.10. Module-Level Functions
- 16.6.11. Module-Level Attributes
- 16.6.12. Integration with the warnings module
- 16.7.
logging.config— Logging configuration - 16.8.
logging.handlers— Logging handlers- 16.8.1. StreamHandler
- 16.8.2. FileHandler
- 16.8.3. NullHandler
- 16.8.4. WatchedFileHandler
- 16.8.5. BaseRotatingHandler
- 16.8.6. RotatingFileHandler
- 16.8.7. TimedRotatingFileHandler
- 16.8.8. SocketHandler
- 16.8.9. DatagramHandler
- 16.8.10. SysLogHandler
- 16.8.11. NTEventLogHandler
- 16.8.12. SMTPHandler
- 16.8.13. MemoryHandler
- 16.8.14. HTTPHandler
- 16.8.15. QueueHandler
- 16.8.16. QueueListener
- 16.9.
getpass— Portable password input - 16.10.
curses— Terminal handling for character-cell displays - 16.11.
curses.textpad— Text input widget for curses programs - 16.12.
curses.ascii— Utilities for ASCII characters - 16.13.
curses.panel— A panel stack extension for curses - 16.14.
platform— Access to underlying platform’s identifying data - 16.15.
errno— Standard errno system symbols - 16.16.
ctypes— A foreign function library for Python- 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial
- 16.16.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
- 16.16.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- 16.16.1.3. Calling functions
- 16.16.1.4. Fundamental data types
- 16.16.1.5. Calling functions, continued
- 16.16.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
- 16.16.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- 16.16.1.8. Return types
- 16.16.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- 16.16.1.10. Structures and unions
- 16.16.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
- 16.16.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
- 16.16.1.13. Arrays
- 16.16.1.14. Pointers
- 16.16.1.15. Type conversions
- 16.16.1.16. Incomplete Types
- 16.16.1.17. Callback functions
- 16.16.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
- 16.16.1.19. Surprises
- 16.16.1.20. Variable-sized data types
- 16.16.2. ctypes reference
- 16.16.1. ctypes tutorial
- 16.1.
- 17. Concurrent Execution
- 17.1.
threading— Thread-based parallelism - 17.2.
multiprocessing— Process-based parallelism- 17.2.1. Introduction
- 17.2.2. Reference
- 17.2.2.1.
Processand exceptions - 17.2.2.2. Pipes and Queues
- 17.2.2.3. Miscellaneous
- 17.2.2.4. Connection Objects
- 17.2.2.5. Synchronization primitives
- 17.2.2.6. Shared
ctypesObjects - 17.2.2.7. Managers
- 17.2.2.8. Proxy Objects
- 17.2.2.9. Process Pools
- 17.2.2.10. Listeners and Clients
- 17.2.2.11. Authentication keys
- 17.2.2.12. Logging
- 17.2.2.13. The
multiprocessing.dummymodule
- 17.2.2.1.
- 17.2.3. Programming guidelines
- 17.2.4. Examples
- 17.3. The
concurrentpackage - 17.4.
concurrent.futures— Launching parallel tasks - 17.5.
subprocess— Subprocess management - 17.6.
sched— Event scheduler - 17.7.
queue— A synchronized queue class - 17.8.
dummy_threading— Drop-in replacement for thethreadingmodule - 17.9.
_thread— Low-level threading API - 17.10.
_dummy_thread— Drop-in replacement for the_threadmodule
- 17.1.
- 18. Interprocess Communication and Networking
- 18.1.
socket— Low-level networking interface - 18.2.
ssl— TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects - 18.3.
select— Waiting for I/O completion - 18.4.
selectors– High-level I/O multiplexing - 18.5.
asyncio– Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks- 18.5.1. Base Event Loop
- 18.5.1.1. Run an event loop
- 18.5.1.2. Calls
- 18.5.1.3. Delayed calls
- 18.5.1.4. Tasks
- 18.5.1.5. Creating connections
- 18.5.1.6. Creating listening connections
- 18.5.1.7. Watch file descriptors
- 18.5.1.8. Low-level socket operations
- 18.5.1.9. Resolve host name
- 18.5.1.10. Connect pipes
- 18.5.1.11. UNIX signals
- 18.5.1.12. Executor
- 18.5.1.13. Error Handling API
- 18.5.1.14. Debug mode
- 18.5.1.15. Server
- 18.5.1.16. Handle
- 18.5.1.17. Event loop examples
- 18.5.2. Event loops
- 18.5.3. Tasks and coroutines
- 18.5.4. Transports and protocols (low-level API)
- 18.5.5. Streams (high-level API)
- 18.5.6. Subprocess
- 18.5.7. Synchronization primitives
- 18.5.8. Queues
- 18.5.9. Develop with asyncio
- 18.5.9.1. Debug mode of asyncio
- 18.5.9.2. Cancellation
- 18.5.9.3. Concurrency and multithreading
- 18.5.9.4. Handle blocking functions correctly
- 18.5.9.5. Logging
- 18.5.9.6. Detect coroutine objects never scheduled
- 18.5.9.7. Detect exceptions never consumed
- 18.5.9.8. Chain coroutines correctly
- 18.5.9.9. Pending task destroyed
- 18.5.9.10. Close transports and event loops
- 18.5.1. Base Event Loop
- 18.6.
asyncore— Asynchronous socket handler - 18.7.
asynchat— Asynchronous socket command/response handler - 18.8.
signal— Set handlers for asynchronous events - 18.9.
mmap— Memory-mapped file support
- 18.1.
- 19. Internet Data Handling
- 19.1.
email— An email and MIME handling package- 19.1.1.
email.message: Representing an email message - 19.1.2.
email.parser: Parsing email messages - 19.1.3.
email.generator: Generating MIME documents - 19.1.4.
email.policy: Policy Objects - 19.1.5.
email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects - 19.1.6.
email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content - 19.1.7.
email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch - 19.1.8.
email.header: Internationalized headers - 19.1.9.
email.charset: Representing character sets - 19.1.10.
email.encoders: Encoders - 19.1.11.
email.errors: Exception and Defect classes - 19.1.12.
email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities - 19.1.13.
email.iterators: Iterators - 19.1.14.
email: Examples - 19.1.15. Package History
- 19.1.16. Differences from
mimelib
- 19.1.1.
- 19.2.
json— JSON encoder and decoder - 19.3.
mailcap— Mailcap file handling - 19.4.
mailbox— Manipulate mailboxes in various formats - 19.5.
mimetypes— Map filenames to MIME types - 19.6.
base64— Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings - 19.7.
binhex— Encode and decode binhex4 files - 19.8.
binascii— Convert between binary and ASCII - 19.9.
quopri— Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data - 19.10.
uu— Encode and decode uuencode files
- 19.1.
- 20. Structured Markup Processing Tools
- 20.1.
html— HyperText Markup Language support - 20.2.
html.parser— Simple HTML and XHTML parser - 20.3.
html.entities— Definitions of HTML general entities - 20.4. XML Processing Modules
- 20.5.
xml.etree.ElementTree— The ElementTree XML API - 20.6.
xml.dom— The Document Object Model API- 20.6.1. Module Contents
- 20.6.2. Objects in the DOM
- 20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
- 20.6.2.2. Node Objects
- 20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects
- 20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects
- 20.6.2.5. Document Objects
- 20.6.2.6. Element Objects
- 20.6.2.7. Attr Objects
- 20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
- 20.6.2.9. Comment Objects
- 20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
- 20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
- 20.6.2.12. Exceptions
- 20.6.3. Conformance
- 20.7.
xml.dom.minidom— Minimal DOM implementation - 20.8.
xml.dom.pulldom— Support for building partial DOM trees - 20.9.
xml.sax— Support for SAX2 parsers - 20.10.
xml.sax.handler— Base classes for SAX handlers - 20.11.
xml.sax.saxutils— SAX Utilities - 20.12.
xml.sax.xmlreader— Interface for XML parsers - 20.13.
xml.parsers.expat— Fast XML parsing using Expat
- 20.1.
- 21. Internet Protocols and Support
- 21.1.
webbrowser— Convenient Web-browser controller - 21.2.
cgi— Common Gateway Interface support - 21.3.
cgitb— Traceback manager for CGI scripts - 21.4.
wsgiref— WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation - 21.5.
urllib— URL handling modules - 21.6.
urllib.request— Extensible library for opening URLs- 21.6.1. Request Objects
- 21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects
- 21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects
- 21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- 21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- 21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects
- 21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- 21.6.8. HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
- 21.6.9. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.10. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.11. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.12. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.13. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.14. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 21.6.15. HTTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.16. HTTPSHandler Objects
- 21.6.17. FileHandler Objects
- 21.6.18. DataHandler Objects
- 21.6.19. FTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.20. CacheFTPHandler Objects
- 21.6.21. UnknownHandler Objects
- 21.6.22. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- 21.6.23. Examples
- 21.6.24. Legacy interface
- 21.6.25.
urllib.requestRestrictions
- 21.7.
urllib.response— Response classes used by urllib - 21.8.
urllib.parse— Parse URLs into components - 21.9.
urllib.error— Exception classes raised by urllib.request - 21.10.
urllib.robotparser— Parser for robots.txt - 21.11.
http— HTTP modules - 21.12.
http.client— HTTP protocol client - 21.13.
ftplib— FTP protocol client - 21.14.
poplib— POP3 protocol client - 21.15.
imaplib— IMAP4 protocol client - 21.16.
nntplib— NNTP protocol client - 21.17.
smtplib— SMTP protocol client - 21.18.
smtpd— SMTP Server - 21.19.
telnetlib— Telnet client - 21.20.
uuid— UUID objects according to RFC 4122 - 21.21.
socketserver— A framework for network servers - 21.22.
http.server— HTTP servers - 21.23.
http.cookies— HTTP state management - 21.24.
http.cookiejar— Cookie handling for HTTP clients - 21.25.
xmlrpc— XMLRPC server and client modules - 21.26.
xmlrpc.client— XML-RPC client access - 21.27.
xmlrpc.server— Basic XML-RPC servers - 21.28.
ipaddress— IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- 21.1.
- 22. Multimedia Services
- 22.1.
audioop— Manipulate raw audio data - 22.2.
aifc— Read and write AIFF and AIFC files - 22.3.
sunau— Read and write Sun AU files - 22.4.
wave— Read and write WAV files - 22.5.
chunk— Read IFF chunked data - 22.6.
colorsys— Conversions between color systems - 22.7.
imghdr— Determine the type of an image - 22.8.
sndhdr— Determine type of sound file - 22.9.
ossaudiodev— Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- 22.1.
- 23. Internationalization
- 24. Program Frameworks
- 24.1.
turtle— Turtle graphics- 24.1.1. Introduction
- 24.1.2. Overview of available Turtle and Screen methods
- 24.1.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
- 24.1.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
- 24.1.5. Public classes
- 24.1.6. Help and configuration
- 24.1.7.
turtledemo— Demo scripts - 24.1.8. Changes since Python 2.6
- 24.1.9. Changes since Python 3.0
- 24.2.
cmd— Support for line-oriented command interpreters - 24.3.
shlex— Simple lexical analysis
- 24.1.
- 25. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
- 25.1.
tkinter— Python interface to Tcl/Tk - 25.2.
tkinter.ttk— Tk themed widgets - 25.3.
tkinter.tix— Extension widgets for Tk - 25.4.
tkinter.scrolledtext— Scrolled Text Widget - 25.5. IDLE
- 25.5.1. Menus
- 25.5.1.1. File menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.2. Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.3. Format menu (Editor window only)
- 25.5.1.4. Run menu (Editor window only)
- 25.5.1.5. Shell menu (Shell window only)
- 25.5.1.6. Debug menu (Shell window only)
- 25.5.1.7. Options menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.8. Window menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.9. Help menu (Shell and Editor)
- 25.5.1.10. Context Menus
- 25.5.2. Editing and navigation
- 25.5.3. Startup and code execution
- 25.5.4. Help and preferences
- 25.5.1. Menus
- 25.6. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
- 25.1.
- 26. Development Tools
- 26.1.
typing— Support for type hints - 26.2.
pydoc— Documentation generator and online help system - 26.3.
doctest— Test interactive Python examples - 26.4.
unittest— Unit testing framework- 26.4.1. Basic example
- 26.4.2. Command-Line Interface
- 26.4.3. Test Discovery
- 26.4.4. Organizing test code
- 26.4.5. Re-using old test code
- 26.4.6. Skipping tests and expected failures
- 26.4.7. Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
- 26.4.8. Classes and functions
- 26.4.9. Class and Module Fixtures
- 26.4.10. Signal Handling
- 26.5.
unittest.mock— mock object library - 26.6.
unittest.mock— getting started- 26.6.1. Using Mock
- 26.6.1.1. Mock Patching Methods
- 26.6.1.2. Mock for Method Calls on an Object
- 26.6.1.3. Mocking Classes
- 26.6.1.4. Naming your mocks
- 26.6.1.5. Tracking all Calls
- 26.6.1.6. Setting Return Values and Attributes
- 26.6.1.7. Raising exceptions with mocks
- 26.6.1.8. Side effect functions and iterables
- 26.6.1.9. Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
- 26.6.2. Patch Decorators
- 26.6.3. Further Examples
- 26.6.3.1. Mocking chained calls
- 26.6.3.2. Partial mocking
- 26.6.3.3. Mocking a Generator Method
- 26.6.3.4. Applying the same patch to every test method
- 26.6.3.5. Mocking Unbound Methods
- 26.6.3.6. Checking multiple calls with mock
- 26.6.3.7. Coping with mutable arguments
- 26.6.3.8. Nesting Patches
- 26.6.3.9. Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
- 26.6.3.10. Mock subclasses and their attributes
- 26.6.3.11. Mocking imports with patch.dict
- 26.6.3.12. Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
- 26.6.3.13. More complex argument matching
- 26.6.1. Using Mock
- 26.7. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
- 26.8.
test— Regression tests package for Python - 26.9.
test.support— Utilities for the Python test suite
- 26.1.
- 27. Debugging and Profiling
- 27.1.
bdb— Debugger framework - 27.2.
faulthandler— Dump the Python traceback - 27.3.
pdb— The Python Debugger - 27.4. The Python Profilers
- 27.5.
timeit— Measure execution time of small code snippets - 27.6.
trace— Trace or track Python statement execution - 27.7.
tracemalloc— Trace memory allocations
- 27.1.
- 28. Software Packaging and Distribution
- 29. Python Runtime Services
- 29.1.
sys— System-specific parameters and functions - 29.2.
sysconfig— Provide access to Python’s configuration information - 29.3.
builtins— Built-in objects - 29.4.
__main__— Top-level script environment - 29.5.
warnings— Warning control - 29.6.
contextlib— Utilities forwith-statement contexts- 29.6.1. Utilities
- 29.6.2. Examples and Recipes
- 29.6.2.1. Supporting a variable number of context managers
- 29.6.2.2. Simplifying support for single optional context managers
- 29.6.2.3. Catching exceptions from
__enter__methods - 29.6.2.4. Cleaning up in an
__enter__implementation - 29.6.2.5. Replacing any use of
try-finallyand flag variables - 29.6.2.6. Using a context manager as a function decorator
- 29.6.3. Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
- 29.7.
abc— Abstract Base Classes - 29.8.
atexit— Exit handlers - 29.9.
traceback— Print or retrieve a stack traceback - 29.10.
__future__— Future statement definitions - 29.11.
gc— Garbage Collector interface - 29.12.
inspect— Inspect live objects- 29.12.1. Types and members
- 29.12.2. Retrieving source code
- 29.12.3. Introspecting callables with the Signature object
- 29.12.4. Classes and functions
- 29.12.5. The interpreter stack
- 29.12.6. Fetching attributes statically
- 29.12.7. Current State of Generators and Coroutines
- 29.12.8. Command Line Interface
- 29.13.
site— Site-specific configuration hook - 29.14.
fpectl— Floating point exception control
- 29.1.
- 30. Custom Python Interpreters
- 31. Importing Modules
- 32. Python Language Services
- 32.1.
parser— Access Python parse trees - 32.2.
ast— Abstract Syntax Trees - 32.3.
symtable— Access to the compiler’s symbol tables - 32.4.
symbol— Constants used with Python parse trees - 32.5.
token— Constants used with Python parse trees - 32.6.
keyword— Testing for Python keywords - 32.7.
tokenize— Tokenizer for Python source - 32.8.
tabnanny— Detection of ambiguous indentation - 32.9.
pyclbr— Python class browser support - 32.10.
py_compile— Compile Python source files - 32.11.
compileall— Byte-compile Python libraries - 32.12.
dis— Disassembler for Python bytecode - 32.13.
pickletools— Tools for pickle developers
- 32.1.
- 33. Miscellaneous Services
- 34. MS Windows Specific Services
- 35. Unix Specific Services
- 35.1.
posix— The most common POSIX system calls - 35.2.
pwd— The password database - 35.3.
spwd— The shadow password database - 35.4.
grp— The group database - 35.5.
crypt— Function to check Unix passwords - 35.6.
termios— POSIX style tty control - 35.7.
tty— Terminal control functions - 35.8.
pty— Pseudo-terminal utilities - 35.9.
fcntl— Thefcntlandioctlsystem calls - 35.10.
pipes— Interface to shell pipelines - 35.11.
resource— Resource usage information - 35.12.
nis— Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) - 35.13.
syslog— Unix syslog library routines
- 35.1.
- 36. Superseded Modules
- 36.1.
optparse— Parser for command line options- 36.1.1. Background
- 36.1.2. Tutorial
- 36.1.3. Reference Guide
- 36.1.3.1. Creating the parser
- 36.1.3.2. Populating the parser
- 36.1.3.3. Defining options
- 36.1.3.4. Option attributes
- 36.1.3.5. Standard option actions
- 36.1.3.6. Standard option types
- 36.1.3.7. Parsing arguments
- 36.1.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
- 36.1.3.9. Conflicts between options
- 36.1.3.10. Cleanup
- 36.1.3.11. Other methods
- 36.1.4. Option Callbacks
- 36.1.4.1. Defining a callback option
- 36.1.4.2. How callbacks are called
- 36.1.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
- 36.1.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
- 36.1.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
- 36.1.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- 36.1.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- 36.1.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- 36.1.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
- 36.1.5. Extending
optparse
- 36.2.
imp— Access theimportinternals
- 36.1.
- 37. Undocumented Modules
- Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
- Recommended third party tools
- Creating extensions without third party tools
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- 1.1. A Simple Example
- 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- 1.3. Back to the Example
- 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
- 1.5. Compilation and Linkage
- 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
- 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
- 1.10. Reference Counts
- 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
- 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
- 2. Defining New Types
- 3. Building C and C++ Extensions
- 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application
- Python/C API Reference Manual
- Introduction
- Stable Application Binary Interface
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Fundamental Objects
- Numeric Objects
- Sequence Objects
- Container Objects
- Function Objects
- Other Objects
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
- API and ABI Versioning
- Distributing Python Modules
- Installing Python Modules
- Python HOWTOs
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- The Short Explanation
- Details
- Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
- Make sure you specify the proper version support in your
setup.pyfile - Have good test coverage
- Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
- Update your code
- Prevent compatibility regressions
- Check which dependencies block your transition
- Update your
setup.pyfile to denote Python 3 compatibility - Use continuous integration to stay compatible
- Dropping Python 2 support completely
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
- Logging Cookbook
- Using logging in multiple modules
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Dealing with handlers that block
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing
LogRecord - Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with
dictConfig() - Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with
dictConfig() - Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
- HOWTO Use Python in the web
- Argparse Tutorial
- An introduction to the ipaddress module
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- Symbolic default values
- Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic
- Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple
- Optional Groups
- Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”
- Py_buffer
- Advanced converters
- Parameter default values
- The
NULLdefault value - Expressions specified as default values
- Using a return converter
- Cloning existing functions
- Calling Python code
- Using a “self converter”
- Writing a custom converter
- Writing a custom return converter
- METH_O and METH_NOARGS
- tp_new and tp_init functions
- Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output
- The #ifdef trick
- Using Argument Clinic in Python files
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- Python Frequently Asked Questions
- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
- Design and History FAQ
- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
- Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented?
- How are dictionaries implemented?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
- Library and Extension FAQ
- Extending/Embedding FAQ
- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object’s method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- What does “SystemError: _PyImport_FixupExtension: module yourmodule not loaded” mean?
- How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- Python on Windows FAQ
- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a
*.pydfile the same as a DLL? - How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?
- How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Reporting Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License
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